Thursday 20 June 2013

Chemistry Material for APPSC General studies,Chemistryl for General Studies, Chemistry material for Group-1 & 2 - Ores of some important elements



 Ores of some important elements

Element
Ores
zinc (Zn):
Zincite (ZnO),
Zinc blende or spharelite (ZnS),
 Zincspar or calamine (ZnCO3),
Willemite (Zn2SiO4).
silver (Ag):
Horn silver (AgCl),
Argentite or silver glance (Ag2S),
 Pyrargyrite or ruby silver (3Ag2S-Sb2S3),
Stromeyerite or silver copper glance {(Cu,Ag)2S}.
aluminium (Al)
Corundum,
Ruby,
Sapphire, Emerald (Al2O3)
Diaspore (Al2O3.H2O),
Bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) (Most important ore),
Gibbsite (Al2O3.3H2O),
Cryolite (Na3AlF6) (2nd most important ore),
Alum stone {K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3},
Turquoise {AlPO4.Al(OH)3.H2O},
Felspar (KAlSi3O8).
lead or plumbum (Pb)
Galena (PbS),
Anglesite (PbSO4),
Cerussite (PbCO3),
Lanarkite (PbO.PbSO4).
magnesium (Mg):
Magnesite (MgCO3) (Chief ore),
Dolomite (MgCO3.CaCO3),
Kiesserite (MgSO4.H2O),
Epsom salt (4.7H2O),
Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O),
Asbestos {CaMg3(SiO3)4}.
calcium (Ca):
Calcite or calcspar or Limestone (CaCO3),
Dolomite (MgCO3.CaCO3),
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O),
 Fluorspar (CaF2),
Fluoraspatite {3Ca(PO4).CaF2},
Phosphorite {Ca3(PO4)2}.


Iron (Fe):
Magnetite (Fe3O4) (main ore),
 Haematite (Fe2O3),
Limonite (Fe2O3.3H2O),
Siderite or sepathic iron (FeCO3),
 Iron pyrites (FeS2),
Chalcopyrites (CuFeS2).
copper (Cu):
Copper pyrites (CuFeS2) (Main ore),
Melachite {CuCO3.Cu(OH)2},
Cuprite (Cu2O),
Copper glance (Cu2S) .
tin (Sn):
Cassiterite (SnO2).
mercury (Hg):
Cinnabar (HgS).
Sodium (Na):
Rock salt (NaCl) (main ore),
 Chile saltpetre (NaNO3),
Glaubers salt (Na2SO4.10H2O),
Trona (Na2CO3.2NaHCO3.3H2O),
 Natron (Na2CO3.H2O),
Tincal (Borax) (Na2B4O7.10H2O),
Cryolite (NaAlSi3O8),
Soda feldspar (NaAlSi3O8),
Feldspar (Na3AlSiO8).
Lithium (Li):
Spodumene (LiAlSi2O6,
 Lepidolite {(Li,Na,K)2Al2(SiO3)3.F(OH)}.
chromium (Cr):
Chromite (Cr2O3.FeO).



Tuesday 18 June 2013

Group-1 Mains Indian Polity material



How a Bill becomes an Act?

A Bill is the draft of a legislative proposal. It has to pass through three stages and receive the assent of the President before it becomes an Act of Parliament. It will come into effect after it has been notified by the Government. The Bills initiated by Ministers are called Government Bills and those introduced by Members who are not Ministers, are known as Private Members’ Bills.

Depending on their contents, Bills may further be classified broadly into
· Ordinary Bills
· Constitution Amendment Bills
· Money Bills
· Financial Bills A and B.
· Other Bills where the procedure for passing of the Bill may be marginally different- for example, requiring the prior assent of the President (Art.3)

Process of passage of a Bill in each House is as follows.

First Reading

The legislative process starts with the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament—Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. A Bill can be introduced either by a Minister or by a private member. In the former case it is known as a Government Bill and in the later case it is known as a Private Member’s Bill.

It is necessary for a member-in-charge of the Bill to ask for leave to introduce the Bill A Minister has to give notice of days and a private member 30 days for seeking leave of the House for introduction. If leave is granted by the House, the Bill is introduced. This stage is known as the First Reading of the Bill.

If the motion for leave to introduce a Bill is opposed, the Speaker/Chairman may, in his discretion, allow brief explanatory statements to be made by the member who opposes the motion and the member-in-charge who moved the motion. Where a motion for leave to introduce a Bill is opposed on the ground that the Bill initiates legislation outside the legislative competence of the House, the Speaker/Chairman may permit a full discussion. Thereafter the question is put to the vote of the House. However, the motion for leave to introduce a Finance Bill or an Appropriation Bill is forthwith put to the vote of the House.

Publication in Gazette

After a Bill has been introduced, it is published in the Official Gazette. Even before introduction, a Bill may, with the permission of the Presiding Officer, be published in the Gazette. In such cases, leave to introduce the Bill in the House is no asked for and the Bill is straightaway introduced.

Reference of Bill to Standing Committee

After a Bill has been, introduced, Presiding Officer of the concerned House can refer the Bill to concerned Standing Committee for examination and make report. If a Bill is referred to Committee, the Committee shall consider the general principles and clauses of the Bill referred to them and make report. The Committee can also take expert opinion or the public opinion who are interested
in the measure) After the 131 has thus been considered, the Committee submits its report to the House: The report of the Committee has persuasive value.


Second Reading or Consideration

The Second Reading consists of consideration of the Bill which is in two stages.

First Stage: The first stage consists of general discussion on the Bill as a whole when the principle underlying the Bill is discussed. At this stage it is open to the house to

· refer the Bill to a Select Committee of the House or a Joint Committee of the two Houses or
· to circulate it for the purpose of eliciting opinion or
· to straightaway take it into consideration.

If a Bill is referred to a Select/Joint Committee, the Committee considers the Bill clause-by-clause just as the House does. Amendments can be moved to the various clauses by members of the Committee. The Committee can also take evidence of associations, public bodies or experts who are interested in the measure. After the Bill has thus been considered, the Committee submits its
report to the House which considers the Bill again as reported by the Committee. If a Bill is circulated for the purpose of eliciting public opinion thereon, such opinions are obtained through the Governments of the States and Union Territories. Opinions so received are laid on the Table of the House and the next motion in regard to the Bill must be for its reference to a Select/Joint Committee. It is not ordinarily permissible at this stage to move motion for
consideration of the Bill.

Second Stage: The second stage of the Second Reading consists of clause-by-clause consideration of the Bill as introduced or as reported by Select/Joint Committee. Discussions take place on each clause of the Bill and amendments to clauses can be moved at this stage.

Third Reading or voting

Thereafter, the member-in-charge can move that the Bill be passed. This stage is known as the Third Reading of the Bill or voting. At this stage debate is confined to arguments either in support or rejection of the Bill without referring to the details thereof further than that are absolutely necessary. Only formal, verbal or consequential amendments are allowed to be moved at this stage.
In passing an ordinary Bill, a simple-majority of members present and voting is necessary. But in the case of a Bill to amend the Constitution, called special majority is necessary.

Bill in the other House

After the Bill is passed by one House it is sent to the other House for concurrence with a message to that effect.

Consideration of the Bill at a Joint Sitting (Art.108)
If a Bill passed by one House is
· rejected by the other House, or
· the Houses have finally disagreed as to the amendments to be made in the Bill, or
· more than six months elapse from the date of the receipt of the Bill by the other house without the Bill being passed by it.

The President may call a joint sitting of the two houses to resolve the deadlock. If, at the joint sitting of the Houses, the Bill is passed by a majority of the total number of members of both the Houses present and voting, with the amendments, if any, accepted by them, the Bill is deemed to have been passed by both the Houses.

APPSC Group-1 Mains Paper-4




Ques. 1 : Give an account of the techniques of Biotechnology?

Ans. The main techniques of biotechnology are - genetic engineering, cell culture, tissue culture, bio-processing, protein engineering, monoclonal antibody production and biosensor technology. As has been recognised all over the world, in the last fifteen years, there has been revolution in the field of Biotechnology as evidenced through new discoveries and inventions in
the areas of isolation and manipulation of genes, better understanding of biological molecules, the advent of recombinant DNA technique enabling
the genes to be transferred between organisms to produce scare proteins of plant and animal origin as also human growth factors and hormones.

Ques. 2 : Discuss in brief the Genetic engineering?

Ans. Genetic Engineering : The utilisation of genetic machinery of life for production of any special substance is called gene technology or genetic engineering. The genetic modification of micro- organisms, so vital for their utilisation in the production of useful biochemical, can be brought about by simple recombination or by complex genetic manipulations. Some of the
techniques are:

Isolation of Genes: Appropriate sequence of genes is directly obtained from genome of normal cell or from other cells. This is made possible by cleavage and denaturation of DNA extracted from the cells.

Synthesis of Genes: This is done by chemical methods. Dr. Hargobind Khurana reported this in 1970.

Recombinant DNA: Breakage of DNA molecule at two desired places to isolate a specific DNA fragment and then inserting it in another DNA molecule at a desired position results in a new gene product which is called as recombinant DNA (r-DNA). The receiving organism is said to be transgenic. Using this technique we can isolate and clone single copy of a gene or a DNA molecule into an indefinite number of copies, all identical.

Gene Cloning: Isolation of gene and replication of a single copy of gene or DNA segment into an infinite number of copies, all identical, is known as gene cloning. This becomes possible because vectors like plasmids and phages reproduce in their usual style even after insertion of foreign DNA. This inserted DNA will also replicate faithfully with parent DNA. Recently extensive
use of newly discovered polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has also been made for gene technology.

Ques. 3 : What is Tissue Culture?

Ans. Tissue Culture : Tissue culture is the technology of artificially growing micro-organisms or cells or tissues or organs to the desired genetic purity with properties such as high yield and disease resistance.

The microbes in culture are used in recombinant DNA technology and in a variety of industrial processes, plant cells and tissues are used for a variety of genetic manipulations. For example another culture is used for haploid breeding; gametic and somatic cell/tissue cultures are used for tapping gametoclonal and somaclonal variations or for production of artificial seeds. Transformation of protoplast in culture leads to production of useful transgenic plants. Embryo culture technique has also helped extending the range of distant hybridisation for plant breeding purposes. Animal cells are used for multiplication of superior livestock using a variety of techniques like Cloning of superior embryonic cells, transformation of cultured cells leading to the production of transgenic animals and in vitro fertilisation and transfer of embryos to surrogate mothers.

Ques. 4 : Briefly discuss microbial biotechnology?

Ans. Microbial Biotechnology : Micro organisms have been harnessed by man for the production of useful materials. The latest initiatives in Microbial Biotechnology have been taken in the following matters:

i)Rehabilitation of degraded land such as alkaline soil, mine dumps and dump from metallurgical factories, utilising microbial supports.

ii)Dissolution of pyretic shells by microbial methods to liberate entrapped noble metals like gold, silver etc. through the process of bio-techning of low and lean grade orders.

iii)Degradation of polyphenolic compounds using microbial approaches.

iv)Standardisation of shuttling vectors for E-coli and streptomyces having capabilities of accepting chester genes of Ansamycines.

v)Strengthening of microbial teaching and research in identified universities.

vi)Development of fungicides to contain fungal infections in plants and vegetables.

vii)Development of microbial enzymes active in extreme temperatures, novel antibiotics  and bioactive proteins and other biomolecules for industrial use.